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Engraved glass is a type of decorated glass that involves shallowly engraving the surface of a glass object, either by holding it against a rotating wheel, or manipulating a "diamond point" in the style of an engraving burin. It is a subgroup of glass art, which refers to all artistic glass, much of it made by "hot" techniques such as moulding and blowing melting glass, and with other "cold" techniques such as glass etching which uses acidic, caustic, or abrasive substances to achieve artistic effects, and cut glass, which is cut with an abrasive wheel, but more deeply than in engraved glass, where the engraving normally only cuts deeply enough into the surface to leave a mark. Usually the engraved surface is left "frosted" so a difference is visible, while in cut glass the cut surface is polished to restore transparency. Some pieces may combine two or more techniques.
There are several different techniques of glass engraving. It has been practised since ancient times, including Roman glass, and professionally engraved glass has always been an expensive luxury, requiring lavish amounts of labour by a highly skilled craftsman or artist. In recent centuries the most notable periods and places of production started in the 16th century, initially mostly in Venetian glass, then later in Germany and Bohemian glass. From about 1645 it was used in the Netherlands, which was producing the finest engraving by 1700, by which time some engraving was used in most glass-making centres in Europe. The late 17th and early 18th centuries were in some ways the peak period of achievement and popularity. From 1730 onwards it received some competition from the new geometric cut glass style developed in England. These related techniques were often combined in a single piece, but the engraving tended to be relegated to less prominent positions.
In the 19th century cut glass continued to dominate, and new techniques of etched glass, cheaper than engraving, also took some of the role formerly occupied by engraving. By the later part of the century, a whole variety of techniques, many including coloured glass, had developed. Engraved glass retained some niches, and was sometimes used in art glass and later studio glass, but no longer had its former importance, although there has been a revival in Britain, with many public commissions for large window-size pieces.
Much glass remains in private collections, and many museums do not display much of their holdings, and often do not display them to the best advantage, which is usually against a dark background. Wineglasses were meant to be appreciated by holding in the hand, and when full any distracting engraving on the other side of the glass was not visible, or much less so.Norman, 50
Another form of engraving is "stipple" in which the image is created by a large number of small dots or short lines on the surface of the glass with the use of small diamond-tipped tools. The scratches and small dots made in this method can, in the hands of a skilled artist, be used to produce images of astonishing clarity and detail.Norman, 51–53 A mixture of diamond-point, wheel-engraving and stipple can all be used in the same piece, though most pieces use one of them for most or all of the work. Typically the design, or at least the main outlines, are marked on the glass before engraving begins.
Sandblasting is another technique used in glass engraving. Abrasive is sprayed through a sandblasting gun onto glass which is masked up by a piece of stencil in order to produce inscriptions or images. This is often used for engraving large areas such as windows, and the result is often similar to that achieved by glass etching using acid.Osborne, 395
The engraver might be employed by the glassmaker, or completely independent, buying or finished glasses and other pieces to work on. This seems to go as far back as Roman times.Caron, 21 Modern laser engraving on glass is another technique, generally only used for decorative purposes mechanically, for example to reproduce images on mirrors.
There was some engraved early Islamic glass, but as with the Romans, deep cutting (often called carving) was rather more important.Osborne, 396–397 Medieval Venetian glass also used engraving for ornament, but it was generally subordinate to elaborate "hot work" effects, and work in enamelled glass. Most Venetian glass aimed at extreme thinness and delicacy, making it risky to attempt engraving, which was only done lightly with a diamond point.Osborne, 398 This taste continued through the Renaissance and wheel-engraving was in fact not used in Venice until the eighteenth century, much later than elsewhere.Battie & Cottle, 68
From the 16th to the 18th century there was also a good deal of amateur engraving of glass, much of it just inscribing a name, but some with images. This period coincided with the development in gem-cutting of the modern facet-cut diamond, making the essential diamond-point tool readily to hand for many of the wealthy. Windows were also subject to this treatment. There is rarely any difficulty in distinguishing even the best amateur work from that by professional workshops.Battie & Cottle, 67; Osborne, 395
By the later 16th century the efforts of the Venetian Republic to hold on to its virtual monopoly in the production of luxury glass, mainly by keeping skilled workers in the republic, were beginning to fail. Other countries, often led by their monarchs, were keen to have their own fine glass industries, and tempted skilled workers away. This led to a diffusion of the Venetian style to many centres around Europe. The glass made in this movement is called "façon de Venise" ("Venetian style"); the quality is typically rather lower than the Venetian originals, partly from difficulties sourcing the right materials, and the place of manufacture is often hard to discern. Engraved glass was a part of this diffusion, and initially was especially developed in Germany.Battie & Cottle, 68, 71–77
In England Jacob Verzelini, a Venetian glassmaker already working in London, was granted a monopoly for 21 years in 1574 over Venetian-style vessel glass. His workshop developed a style with a large amount of simple but attractive engraving, much of it floral, and with the shapes filled in with parallel lines throughout. The engraver seems to have been Anthony de Lysle, a Frenchman.Norman, 51
It was the Germans who first revived the wheel-engraving of glass; it had remained in use for hardstone carving and , which are mostly harder than glass. Caspar Lehmann, a gem-cutter perhaps from Munich, is usually considered the first to engrave glass this way, after arriving in Prague in 1588.Battie & Cottle, 78 Prague had the court of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, a significant patron of Northern Mannerism in several of the arts. The Habsburg court moved to Vienna after Rudolf's death but the Bohemian glass industry continued to grow in strength, reaching a peak of importance in the 18th century.Battie & Cottle, 78
Caspar Lehmann's pupil Georg Schwanhardt moved from Prague to his native city of Nuremberg in 1622, and founded a workshop which lasted over a century, continued by his family and others. Unlike the Bohemian engravers, those in Nuremberg often signed their pieces. The most common shapes made were with covers and beakers with "bun" feet. The engraved decoration, normally restricted to the bowl and top of the cover, included a wide range of subjects, drawing from, but not exactly copying, contemporary prints. Portraits of rulers, coats of arms, scenes from classical mythology and the Bible, emblems and allegories are all found, and "battle scenes in woodland settings" were a speciality.Battie & Cottle, 82–84, 82 quoted; Osborne, 400
Elsewhere in Germany, "patriotic decoration tended to be the norm", and glass engraving tended to be centred on the many princely courts, many of which had a Hofkrystalschneider or court glass engraver with his workshop working largely to service the court, including making glasses, often engraved with his portrait, for the prince to give as presents.Battie & Cottle, 86–87 The exact use of the typical covered cup ( pokale) is not entirely certain; it is unclear how often they were made in sets, and whether they were used often, or reserved for very formal feasts and toasting.Battie & Cottle, 85
In Bohemia and Silesia, which became a centre of glass engraving over the 17th century, engravers made more for general commercial sales. Increasing prosperity and expanded production was bringing engraved glass within the reach of a much wider public, and during the first half of the 18th century the Bohemian industry developed a large network of pedlars, including trainee engravers for part of the year, who sold engraved glass across Europe, the trainees able to offer added inscriptions in diamond point to customers. Through Spain, engraved glass could reach Mexico and the Black Sea.Battie & Cottle, 83–85
The French style Régence, a lighter version of earlier French Baroque, reached Germany and Central Europe after 1710, mostly via by French designers such as Jean Bérain the Elder and his son, and the German Paul Decker, working in a similar style. The German strapwork style known as Laub- und bandelwerk became common, as it did in porcelain from Meissen and Vienna porcelain from about the 1730s, but tended to become over-elaborate.Battie & Cottle, 84–85; Osborne, 400
The German Jacob Sang, from a glass-making family of Weimar, was active in Amsterdam from 1752 to 1762. He was one of the most outstanding professionals, making extremely detailed wheel-engraved scenes. Like many Dutch engravers he preferred to use the slightly less brittle "English" type of lead glass developed by George Ravenscroft some decades before, though it now appears that this was by his time also being made on the continent, at Middelburg and elsewhere. By the end of the 18th century, as in some other centres, glass engraving had largely fallen from fashion.Battie & Cottle, 90–91; Norman, 26–28
Perhaps the greatest Dutch engraver, David Wolff (1732–1798), came at the end of the period, and worked entirely in stipple. His unusual technique involved tapping his tool with a small hammer to make each mark. His individual marks can usually only be seen under magnification, and his backgrounds are "rather dark and mysterious", so that it seems as if "his subjects have stepped forward into the light".Norman, 52–53 (quoted); Boham's Lots 71, 72 and 75 are by Wolff Many works once given to him have now been reattributed to three unknown engravers, perhaps forming a workshop.Battie & Cottle, 90 One fine engraver in the stipple style is known only as "Alius",Bonhams, Lots 73, 74 and another is Aert Schouman (1710–92), a pupil of Greenwood.Battie & Cottle, 90
More than elsewhere in Europe, Dutch pieces tend to commemorate a specific occasion, mostly with wheel-engraving. A glass engraved in Utrecht to celebrate the birth of William V, Prince of Orange in 1748, showing an orange tree with a new shoot, uses an English wineglass made about 30 years earlier. "Wine-glass", V&A accession # C.163-1956 As well as those subjects often found elsewhere, the Dutch often engraved ships, many pieces inscribed for toasting a specific vessel, new business partnerships, and a fairly standard scene of the "mothering chamber" ( kraamkamer) with a mother in her curtained bed, with or without a newborn child, and an inscription, usually directed firstly at the mother, around the rim above.Battie & Cottle, 91
On earlier glass there were many simple inscriptions, some political, as in "Jacobitism glass" inscribed with toasts to the exiled House of Stuart, or Jacobite emblems, some rather covert. Some surviving examples, especially of the so-called "Amen" type, are probably 19th-century engraving added to 18th-century glasses.Battie & Cottle, 98; Norman, 53 The "Amen" glasses have long and fairly standard inscriptions, ending in "Amen", with a crown, Tudor rose, or simple royal monogram or coat of arms. One example reads (in part): "Jacobite "amen" glass", Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Bohemian engraver and forger Franz Tieze (died 1932), working in Ireland, specialized in the other side of the political divide, prolifically adding Williamite engraving to old glass. It was later realized that a very high proportion of Williamite engraving was forged.
The William Beilby, active in Newcastle on Tyne between 1757 and 1778 are famous for their enamelled glass, much of it using only white, so achieving a similar effect to engraving.Cottle, Simon, "Beilby Glass Recollected", in Bonham's, 16 They have usually been credited with the tall and elegant "Newcastle" glass shape, although in fact many of these were probably made in the Low Countries.Battie & Cottle, 96
In the later part of the century various trends enlivened the decoration of glass, some making use of engraving. Victorian cameo glass used acid etching to create two colours on cased glass or flash glass, but there was some use of engraving for similar effects, especially in Bohemia and America.Battie & Cottle, 131 The development of Art Nouveau glass, art glass and that of the Arts and Crafts Movement, with a great emphasis on sculptural form and bright colour, had little place for engraving.Battie & Cottle, 144–147
Whistler had first engraved on glass in 1934, in true 17th-century-style engraving a sonnet and floral decoration on a window of a house he was staying at. The innovative style he later developed involved engraving both the inner and outer sides of the glass, giving a sense of depth. From 1955 to the 1980s he made an untypically large set of windows for St Nicholas' Church, Moreton, in Dorset.
In America, the Steuben Glass Works continued to produce engraved glass, both wheel-engraved and diamond point;Norman, 54 this proved to be very compatible with Art Deco style in particular.
Especially after World War II in Britain, there were also a number of larger architectural engravings, often featuring figures nearly as large as life-size, executed on windows or glass screens. These included work by John Hutton (1906–1978) for the new Coventry Cathedral (completed 1962). Hutton's other commissions for monumental glass included work at Guildford Cathedral, the national Library and Archives Canada, and many other sites around Britain and the world. A set of figures of the population of Roman London, completed in 1960 for a now-demolished office block, were relocated to Bank Underground station. "Bank station: work starts on a new entrance", 5 November 2015, Transport for London press release He developed a new technique for large pieces, using an angle grinder.Coleman
Anne Dybka (1922–2007), born and trained in England, emigrated to Australia in 1956, and pursued a career there. Alison Kinnaird (b. 1949) has always been based in Scotland, while Josephine Harris (1931–2020) worked in London.
The UK Guild of Glass Engravers was founded in 1975, based in London and lists a number of glass artists as members, including Ronald Pennell. It has an online gallery of members' works with contact details for commissions and classes for people who want to learn about this art. A general exhibition is held every two years, with the most recent ones at the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge. "21st Century Engraved Glass; An exhibition by the Guild of Glass Engravers", Fitzwilliam Museum; Coleman
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